高中英语语法的总结
[实例1] 张老师：同学们，我们今天学习定语从句，首先请看幻灯片。
（1）the green team
（2）the team in green
（3）the team who were wearing green
张老师：以上3个例子中的中心词是什么？
学 生：都是team。
张老师：（1）、（2）、（3）中的team的修饰语分别是什么？它们与中心词team的位置关系如何？
学 生：分别是（1）green，（2）in green，（3）who were wearing green；其中（1）是形容词，置于team之前；（2）、（3）分别是介词短语和句子，都置于team之后。它们都是team的定语。
张老师（总结）：由此可以看出，定语从句对被修饰词team的作用与形容词的效果是一样的；只不过定语从句必须置于被修饰词之后，且此处的team被称为先行词（antecedent），who是用来引导从句的，所以被称为关系代词（relative pronoun）。
然后，张老师又列举了更多的例句，对定语从句进行更深层次的讲解……
[实例2]钱老师：同学们，今天我们来做个游戏。（拿出事先准备好的道具：一男一女两个布娃娃、一顶红帽子）
钱老师：Can you tell me which doll is a girl?
学 生：The doll with long hair is a girl.
钱老师（把帽子戴到女娃娃头上）：What is the girl wearing now?
学 生：The girl is wearing a red hat.句①
钱老师：How do you like the girl wearing the red hat? 句②
学 生：The girl who is wearing the red hat becomes more beautiful.句③
钱老师（把帽子戴到男孩头上）：What do you think of the boy now?
学 生：The boy who is wearing the red hat looks funny.句④
接下来，钱老师将句①、句②、句③、句④呈现在幻灯片上，开始引导学生认识定语从句。
以上两个教学实例反映了两种截然不同的教学理念和方法。实例1采用的是传统的语法知识讲解，张教师引导学生用类比的方法来推出定语从句，通过分析句子结构和成分来认识定语从句，然后重点介绍与定语从句有关的理论知识。而实例2中，钱教师通过游戏创设了一个真实情境，让学生在操作中关注事物的发展变化，在动态中领悟定语从句在表达中的作用，了解定语从句的语言特征。
一、情境教学的理论基础
1．行为主义心理学把语言看成是一种行为，是一系列的刺激和反应：S1——R1...S2——R2。S1：实际刺激（stimuli），R1：语言替代性反应（response），S2：语言替代性刺激，R2：实际反应。其中，S1就相当于我们语言教学中创设的真实情境，S2则是通过语言表达功能给学习合作者传递的虚拟情境，学习者（包括合作者）接受这两种情境的刺激，完成语言习得的全过程，即R1、R2所表示的两种反应。
2．情境认知理论认为知识和能力的发展，就像语言的发展一样，发生于真实情境中不断进行的利用知识的活动中。该理论“不是把知识作为心理内部的表征，而是把知识视为个体与社会或物理情境之间联系的属性以及互动的产物。因此，参与基于社会情境的一般文化实践是个体知识结构形成的源泉”。该理论反对把知识当作“一个整体的、自足的，从理论上讲与学习和使用它的情境相脱离的东西”。因为这样的知识正如著名的数学家、逻辑学家怀特海(White—head，A.N．)指出的，是“呆滞的知识——仅为人脑所接受却不加以利用，或不进行检验，或没有与其他新颖的思想融为一体，因而，当需要用这些知识来解决实际问题时，它们往往被证明是没有用的。也就是说，情境认知理论超越了传统的知识观，强调知识的情境性、真实性、社会性、应用性、互动性。
3．情境学习观点重视“知识的情境性”，重视以学习者为中心，使学习者在情境中成为知识意义建构的贡献者。这种教学过程呈现一种情境化的教学条件，提供对学习过程的动态指导，使学习者通过活动在其中进行知识的意义建构。因此，需要教学设计者在教学中开发、设计综合的教学环境，如设计适当的“情景”，以利于学生在背景或模拟背景中通过活动进行知识的意义建构，同时获得可迁移的一般技能。
二、语法教学中的情境设置
课堂教学情境的形式是复杂多样的，它具有真实性与虚拟性、预设性与生成性、个体性与社会性、科学性与人文性、即时性与连续性等特征。在语法课堂教学中，教师要创设尽可能逼真的、反映知识生成和应用的学习情境，创建良好的实践场，注重课堂文化的生成，关注课堂情境的细节，促进学生对知识的意义进行协商与建构。语法教学也应遵循语言规律，教师应利用丰富的资源为学生学习语法知识创设形式多样的情境，让他们在生活化的氛围中领悟语法规则的内涵并运用语法知识解决实际问题。
1．语言描述创设情境。用语言组织教学是最基本且常用的教学形式，不同的教师具有不同的语言风格和表达方式，有经验的教师能充分利用语言内涵丰富的特点为课堂教学创设情境。例如，在教授冠词的用法时，单凭讲解可能达不到理想的效果。教师可以用通俗易懂的语言描述一段场景，帮助学生理解a(an)，the之间的区别：Jackie was staying in × bed, thinking of the girl he met the other day. It happened on a rainy Sunday towards the end of May. This was the first time that he could not go to sleep until so late. All of a sudden, there came a knock at the door. Recovering from the deep thought, Jackie was shocked to sit up. Afraid to go to answer it, he asked in a low, trembling voice,“Who is it?”...在特定情境描述中，学习者就能自然而然地领悟冠词使用的适当性。再如，在教授情态动词表示虚拟语气时，如果让学生直接用下列所给动词的正确形式填空有一定的难度。If he had worked (work) harder, Bruce would have passed (pass) the final examination.教师可在呈现句子之前交待一种情境，则更有利于学生正确理解。即：Basketball is Bruce’s favorite sport, on which he spends much time. What’s more, news came that the superstar Jordan would come to visit our school before the end of last term. Naturally, Bruce got lost in it. 学生听了这一番背景介绍，就会情不自禁地说：“Oh, that’s the reason why he failed the exam.”在此基础上，再去讲解例题中的虚拟情境就容易得多。
2． 利用图片、音像资料创设情境。多媒体技术的推广和使用为英语课堂教学开辟了新天地，其音像效果更是将枯燥的语法知识讲解转化为生动的生活情景，使课堂活动栩栩如生，让学生在逼真的生活空间中领悟英语语言的魅力和语法知识的内涵。分词的用法一直是高中学生的难点，特别是有关Verb-ing与Verb-ed的区别总是教学中的重点。其实，在学生了解了分词的基本用法和特点之后，教师可以制作动画创设情境。情景1：人民公园的一角，一位老者独自一人坐在长凳上，一阵秋风拂过，树上的黄叶纷纷落下；看着徐徐下落的秋叶，老者不由叹息一声。不一会儿，地上一片金黄。就在此时，一位身穿环卫服的中年妇女拿着扫帚奋力地扫着地上厚厚的落叶。当学生都被画面情节深深吸引时，教师可以提问：Q1. How do you think the old gentleman feels? Why? 学生回答：S1: He looks a bit upset because of the falling leaves (or: when he sees the leaves falling with the wind). 教师接着问：Q2. What is the woman cleaner doing? 学生又答：S2: She is sweeping the fallen leaves. 由于动画效果形象地展示了树叶在不同阶段的形态特征，学生很自然地从中领悟falling与fallen的语用差异。从而推导出：从时间的维度上看，Verb-ing通常表示正在发生的事，具有动态特征，相反，Verb-ed一般用来陈述业已发生的事，具有静态特征。情景2：画面中一对父子正在做游戏并进行对话。——Father asked：“Have you worked out the puzzle which is puzzling?”---“I don’t understand what you are saying,”answered the little boy, looking puzzled. 父亲幽默的问话和儿子困惑的表情将puzzled（与逻辑主语之间存在动宾关系）与puzzling（与逻辑主语之间存在主谓关系）的差异表现得淋漓尽致。
3． 利用实物创设直观的情境。实物是最常见的直观教具。实物的运用，打破了时间和空间的限制，使学生坐在教室里就可以认识客观事物。例如：借助破杯子、坏了的玩具来介绍形容词broken；用一杯水来体现a cup of；把几样东西放在不同的位置来体现in、on、under、behind等一些介词的含义。再比如：利用照片上人物的位置关系来教授定语从句。Q1: Who is the woman that is sitting between Tom and Roger? S1: She’s Miss Lin, who is our head teacher. Q2: Which is your younger brother among the students in the picture? S2: The boy whose hair is quite long is my younger brother. 教师通过实物这个直观教学手段，加上自己的语言表述和学生的角色扮演，形成交际的模拟情境和气氛。通过在设计的情境中进行语言操练，让学生在轻松、愉快、和谐的气氛中掌握所学语法知识。
4． 通过师生的角色表演创设情境。课堂上让学生表演自己编排的小品常常能起到意想不到的教学效果。学生在准备、参与的过程中会充分体现教学目标，以亲历亲为的感受去领悟语言语法知识。例如：在教授动词时态课上，我让一组学生表演某同学上学迟到并且在公交车上又坐过站的经历，其他同学根据他们的表演遣词造句，并提示学生注意正确使用动词时态。下面列出一段较好的描述：He got up at 7:15 this morning. Being late for school, he hurried downstairs and rushed into a bus without having breakfast. On the bus, two women were talking happily in a loud voice. While he was wondering how to explain to the teacher, the two women continued their talk, which made him a little upset. When he was about to stop them, one of the women stood up from the seat which he had been expecting to take since he got on the bus. The speaker’s voice informed the passengers of the next stop “the People’s Square” and the woman got off immediately. He seated himself on it as quickly as he could and the bus started again in a minute. As he was enjoying the feeling of having a seat, the words “the People’s Square” occurred to him. All of a sudden, he jumped up from the seat, looking so worried and regretful, because “the People’s Square” is also his destination stop. 学生随着故事的发展，顺利地完成情节介绍，并多次用到动词的不同形式。在完成了教学任务的同时也让其他同学在真实环境下对动词的变化形式有了全新的.认识。再如，在教授直接引语和间接引语这一知识点时，可以让三位同学进行表演（教师也可参与其中）。
Dialogue 1: Student A (talking to Student B): Will you come here to attend Christina’s wedding next Saturday?
Student C (asking Student B): What did she say to you?
Student B (answering Student C): She asked me if / whether I would go there to attend Christina’s wedding the next Saturday?
Dialogue 2: Student A: I am staying here today.
Student B: Sorry? I could not hear you clearly.
Student A: I said that I was staying here today.
Dialogue 3: Teacher: We must not fall for that kind of trick.
Student A (asking Student B): What did the teacher say just now?
Student A: He warned us not to fall for that kind of trick.
对话1中的变化：come→ go, here→ there, next Saturday→ the next Saturday；而对话2中的时间、地点状语都未发生变化。而这种差异正是由于学生扮演的角色不同导致了情境发生变化造成的。学生只有身处此情此景中才能领悟语法规则在特殊语境中使用的适当性，处理好一般与特殊的关系。
对话3创设的情境能帮助学生更好地理解To-infinitive在间接引语中的运用。
5． 任务型活动辅助语法教学，让学生在实践中领会语法知识，在“做中学”。任务型学习就是以具体的任务为载体，以完成任务为动力，把知识和技能融为一体。在语法教学中开展一些任务型活动有利于引导学生形成“为用而学、在用中学、学以致用”的良性学习循环和思维习惯。例如：在教授动词的被动语态知识时，我为学生布置了这样的任务：
Project: Writing an instruction to the medicine Aspirin.
Requirements: Present your writing using verbs in passive voice.
随后，我指导学生为完成任务经历了制定计划、着手准备、开始创作、呈现作品四个阶段。
Planning
·Discuss the following questions in your group before you start writing your instruction:
—— What problems will you probably have when you begin to know about the medicine?
—— Where can you find the information about the medicine?
—— What kind of information should be included in an instruction to medicine?
—— How can you use verbs in passive voice correctly to introduce a kind of medicine?
·Assign roles to each group member and write their names beside the following jobs.
—— Research the usage of verbs in passive voice_________________________
—— Research the style an instruction of products should be written in _________
—— Write an outline for the instruction_________________________________
—— Write the instruction____________________________________________
Preparing
·Members responsible for doing research need to find examples of instructions to medicine. The group should discuss the information found, and decide how the instruction should be written. You may refer to the following resources for information:
—— Internet sites
—— drug store
—— hospital
—— doctors
...
·Those responsible for writing the outline need to make a draft and have it approved by the other members.
Producing
·Group members who are writing the instruction need to follow the outline and the teacher’s requirements.
·All members need to proofread the draft to check if verbs are properly used in passive voice. The final version has to be approved by the whole group.
Presenting
·Choose one member to read the instruction in front of the class.
·Answer any questions your classmates have about your instruction.
· Display your instruction where your classmates can see it so that they can correct your mistakes in using verbs in passive voice.
学生对被动语态的知识的获取和用法的掌握贯穿于完成任务的全过程之中，同时，他们对动词语态的使用都是为了“做事”的需要，所以，他们很自然地写出了这样的句子：The medicine is called Aspirin, which can be used to cure...; only two pills should be taken by adults at one time, three times a day. Dosages for children should be reduced under the advice from a doctor. It is suggested that pills had better be taken before meals. ...
6． 交际性语言提供的情境能使语法学习的目的归位。言语活动是一种交际活动，语言是一种交际工具。英语教学的目的是把英语作为交际工具来掌握，培养英语交际能力。而人在进行言语交际活动的同时会自觉地理解并遵守语法规则。所以，用言语活动来教授语法知识既能使学习者习得语法知识，又能达到培养语用能力的目的，是语法学习目的的回归。
例1：—— How did you sleep last night?
—— Like a log. Never slept ______ .
A. bad B. worse C. well D. better
例2：——____ I didn’t hear you clearly.
—— I was saying that John plays football best in our class.
A. Repeat. B. Once again. C. Sorry? D. So what?
例1中的“How did you sleep last night?”和“Like a log.”表明 “睡得很沉”，而句中“never”一词决定只有D项才能符合题意。例2中的“I didn’t hear you clearly.”和“I was saying that...”所提供的情境已经表明对话双方有一个共同的前提，即“话没有听清楚”，所以用“Sorry?”引起话语的重复。
又如：在向学生介绍提出建议、对别人的观点发表意见等语言知识时，教师应通过设置情景和要求学生完成具体任务，让他们在解决问题的过程中理解并习得语法规则和表达习惯。Making suggestions:
(1) Description of the situation: A fat man wanted to lose weight. He went to his doctor for advice. The doctor told him what to eat and to take some exercise.
(2) Requirement: Make a dialogue between doctor and the fat man with your partner with the following expressions: ① I advise / suggest you to do/ that ...; ② My advice to you is... ③ If I were you, I would... ④ Don’t you think it ...⑤ What/How about...⑥Why not...
Expressing agreement and disagreement:
(1) Description of the situation: A debate will be held between Class5 and our class next Friday. The debate question is that staying a teenager forever would be great.
(2) Now, let’s discuss the question and get prepared for it. Here are some useful expressions. ① I agree with you on/that... ② I am of the same opinion (as)... ③ That’s a good point. ④ That’s how I feel (about)...⑤ You’ve got a point. ⑥ I don’t agree. What about...? ⑦ I see things slightly differently. ⑧ On the other hand,... ⑨ Really? I don’t think that... ⑩ I take your point, but...
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